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代写framing  the  SARS  crisis

发布于2019-10-25 微信essayok 阅读:

  1  Introduction:  framing  the  SARS  crisis  In  this  media  report  I  examine  reporting  by  The  Australian  of  the  2003  Severe  Acute  Respiratory  Syndrome  (SARS)  crisis.  SARS  appeared  in  China  in  2003,  surprising  global  health  authorities  and  quickly  becoming  ‘truly  the  first  international  health-­‐related  crisis  of  the  21 st  century  (Powers,  2008:  1).  It  killed  774  people  worldwide,  mostly  in  China  and  its  associated  territories,  leading  to  1  death  in  Australia  (WHO,  2003).  Worryingly,  the  virus  had  a  high  fatality  rate  (Keil,  2011).  SARS  ‘concerned  everyone  and  could  affect  anyone,’  and  ‘was  global  in  the  sense  that  it  called  for  international  cooperation  and  collaboration’  (Huang  &  Leung,  2005:  303).   I  identify  the  frames  used  in  the  coverage  of  this  pandemic  threat  in  order  to  identify  how  the  crisis  was  constructed  for  the  Australian  public.  By  comparing  this  coverage  with  previous  studies  on  disease  framing  I  hope  to  understand  how  the  media  recycles  narratives,  and  what  ‘cultural  resonances’  these  might  have  with  the  Australian  public.  Pandemics,  and  the  threat  of  pandemics,  are  not  new.  In  the  last  century  the  world  experienced  the  1918  Spanish  Flu,  the  1957  Asian  Flu,  and  the  1968  Hong  Kong  Flu,  the  2007  Bird  Flu  (H5N1)  threat  and,  more  recently,  the  2009  Swine  Flu  (H1N1).  I  argue  that,  similar  to  earlier  pandemics,  the  prevalent  frames  used  to  construct  SARS  were  blame,  faith  in  science  and  force  of  nature.  Theory  Global  crises  are  communicated  by  the  news  media,  but  they  are  also  constituted  by  them  (Cottle,  2008:  2).  The  media  therefore  have  ‘a  commanding  strategic  position  and  one  of  considerable  communicative  power’  (ibid:  76).  Media  framing  influences  how  the  public  understands  an  issue  (Kahneman  &  Tversky,  1984),  and  the  less  an  audience  knows  about  an  issue,  the  greater  this  influence  becomes  (Entman,  1993:  54).  ‘Invisible’  risks  are  more  open  to  social  definition  and  construction  (Beck,  1992:  23),  which  emphasises  the  need  to  understand  media  reporting  of  pandemic  threats.  Frames  are  ‘schemas  of  interpretation’  that  allow  an  individual  to  categorise  and  understand  their  world  and  the  occurrences  in  it  (Goffman,  1974  in  Snow  &  Benford,  2000:  614).  However,  frames  are  also  created  by  social  actors  to  promulgate  ‘a  shared  understanding  of  some  problematic  condition  or  situation’  (Snow  &  Benford,  2000:  615).  Framing  is  therefore  a  process  of  categorisation,  but  it  is  also  process  of  constructing  meaning.  Thus,  Gamson  (1989:  157)  contends,  since  facts  ‘have  no  intrinsic  meaning’,  we  should  ‘[T]hink  of  news  as  telling  stories  about  the  world  rather  than  as  presenting  “information…”’.  To  frame  is  to  ‘select  some  aspects  of  a  perceived  reality  and  make  them  more  salient  in  a  communicating  text,  in  such  a  way  as  to  promote  a  particular  problem  definition,  causal  interpretation,  moral  evaluation,  and/or  treatment  recommendation  for  the  item  described’  (Entman,  1993:  52).  Framing  therefore  excludes  some  aspects  of  reality  and  de-­‐emphasises  other  definitions,  evaluations  and  recommendations.  To  understand  the  implicit  story  in  news  content  requires  paying  attention  to  omissions  and  inclusions  (Gamson,  1989:  158).  As  the  ‘central  organising  idea’  of  a  media    2  discourse  (Gamson  &  Modigliani,  1989:  3),  the  overarching  frame  can  accommodate  multiple  interpretations  and  debates  without  the  frame  itself  being  challenged.  The  most  powerful  frames  become  ‘a  transparent  description  of  reality’  and  are  therefore  the  hardest  to  detect  (Kitzinger,  2007).  How  society  views  an  issue  has  real  world  implications  for  how  they  respond  to  it.  The  ‘frame  or  metaphor  utilized  by  the  media  to  explain  a  disease  forms  the  social  schema  by  which  individuals  in  a  society  understand  both  the  disease  and  the  individuals  who  are  living  with  the  disease’  (Houston,  2008:  204).  These  frames  can  affect  ‘how  policies  are  formulated  as  apparently  natural  and  sensible  responses  to  the  issue  in  question’  (Kotyko  et.  al.,  2008:  244).  By  identifying  the  framing  of  pandemic  threats,  we  may  find  recurring  narratives  and  thus  predict  similar,  ‘natural’  responses  in  future.  We  may  also  discover  why  a  frame  may  have  been  chosen.  Regarding  this,  Gamson  and  Modigliani  (1989)  outline  three  influencing  factors:  the  success  of  sponsors  in  courting  media  attention;  the  working  practices  of  the  media;  and  the  degree  to  which  the  frame  resonates  with  cultural  themes.  I  hope  to  uncover  these  cultural  resonances  in  order  to  understand  how  Australians  related  to  SARS.  Literature  Review  The  world  has  changed  significantly  since  the  pandemics  of  1918,  1957  and  1968.  However,  Blakely’s  study  of  the  frames  applied  by  the  New  York  Times  to  these  influenza  pandemics  provides  a  useful  starting  point  for  analysing  more  recent  pandemic  threats.   International  newspapers  applied  different  narrative  frames  to  each  pandemic,  thereby  demonstrating  evolutions  in  the  social  construction  of  influenza  (Blakely,  2006:  155-­‐157).  Coverage  of  the  Spanish  Flu  focused  on  blame:  of  the  Germans  for  their  lifestyles,  of  the  US  government  for  poor  public  health  policies  and,  by  emphasising  the  supposedly  greater  severity  of  nonlocal  influenza,  of  other  foreign  countries  such  as  Spain.  Coverage  of  the  Asian  Flu  oscillated  between  blame  and  faith  in  science:  China  brought  the  flu,  the  US  produced  miracle  drugs  and  vaccines,  but  US  officials  then  failed  to  produce  enough  of  them.  Optimism  eventually  returned  as  the  pandemic  subsided.  Lastly,  coverage  of  the  Hong  Kong  Flu  emphasised  the  power  of  nature:  rather  than  blaming  foreigners,  nature  itself  was  responsible;  man  would  someday  conquer  influenza,  but  for  now  it  was  a  natural  occurrence  and  ‘an  unwelcome  visitor  that  one  just  simply  had  to  put  up  with’  (ibid:  157).  Though  we  should  consider  these  examples  of  blame  affixing  in  their  post-­‐WWI  and  Cold  War  contexts,  these  frames  are  still  used  in  pandemic  media  coverage  today.  Stages  &  Characters  Media  discourse  of  pandemic  threats  follows  a  routine  pattern.  Ungar  (2008:  480)  identifies  three  stages:  ‘sounding  the  alarm’,  ‘mixed  messages’  and  ‘hot  crisis  and  containment’.  Throughout  the  coverage  of  H5N1  in  the  UK,  discourses  of  panic,  unpredictability  and  alarm  were    3  moderated  by  reassuring  mixed  messages  of  faith  in  science  (or  ‘preparedness’  and  ‘medical  promise’),  resulting  in  ‘more  mutations  in  the  coverage  than  in  the  virus  itself’  (ibid:  492).  Holland  (2008:  659)  found  that  H1N1  coverage  went  through  similar  stages,  but  observed  an  additional  beyond  containment  theme,  which  is  perhaps  unsurprising  given  that  H1N1  became  a  ‘hot  crisis’  but  H5N1  did  not.  Different  actors  may  be  portrayed  according  to  reductive  frames.  Wagner-­‐Egger  et.  al.  (2011)  applied  a  dramaturgical  framework  to  the  H1N1  pandemic  to  identify  which  actors  the  Swiss  public  viewed  as  heroes,  villains  and  victims.  They  found  that  the  heroes  tended  to  be  scientists,  physicians  and  often  health  experts.  We  can  also  link  this  to  the  disease  detective  frame  (Ungar,  2008:  475)  that  appears  during  the  early  crisis  stages,  and  which  involves  tracking  down  individual  cases  of  transmission.  Importantly,  a  detective  necessarily  involves  a  ‘crime’,  which  risks  the  stigmatisation  of  those  carrying  a  disease  or  virus.  Respondents  viewed  saw  developing  nations,  such  as  Mexico,  as  victims.  But  while  victims  ‘are  to  be  pitied  for  their  plight[,  they]  are  also  dangerous  because  they  can  potentially  carry  the  disease’  (Wagner-­‐Egger  et.  al.,  2011:  474-­‐ 475).  Drama  Moeller  (1999:  59)  argues  that  coverage  of  disease  is  based  on  drama.  Drama  is  manufactured  by  highlighting  the  deficiencies  of  the  power  of  science.  Media  frames  thus  emphasise  the  novel  and  devastating  nature  of  disease,  and  the  risks  of  a  disease  reaching  the  audience  (ibid:  62).  For  example,  the  British  press  dramatised  H5N1  by  focusing  on  fatalities,  spread  and  the  chance  of  mutation,  creating  the  impression  that  ‘a  monster  virus  [was]  coming’  (Ungar,  2008:  493).  And  the  Australian  media  paired  the  ‘“novelty”  of  [H1N1]…with  references  to  its  lethality’,  giving  ‘the  overall  impression  that  swine  flu  was  imminent,  unavoidable,  capable  of  unknown  proportions,  and  [had]  pandemic  potential’  (Holland  et.  al.,  2012:  659).  Scientific  experts  and  respected  government  officials  set  the  dominant  frame  (ibid:  658),  and  even  labelling  a  disease  affects  the  level  of  drama  that  follows.  When  SARS  was  labelled  an  emerging  infectious  disease,  the  media  ‘located  it  among  the  set  of  pathogens  –  including  HIV/AIDS,  Ebola…and  others  –  that  have  emerged  as  threats  to  global  health  since  the  early  1980s,  fracturing  confidence  in  Western  medicine’s  therapeutic  efficacy’  (Wallis  &  Nerlich,  2005:  2630).  Anxiety,  Responsibility  &  Blame  Prior  to  H1N1,  recent  influenza  viruses  did  not  elicit  intense  fear  or  anxiety.  The  low  death  toll  of  the  1957  and  1968  pandemics  meant  that  ‘for  decades  influenza  had  occupied  the  “dull  but  worthy”  category  of  infectious  diseases’  (Abraham,  2011:  797-­‐8).  But  government  attitudes  have  responded  to  globalisation,  modernisation  and  terrorism  with  an  ‘emerging  diseases  worldview’  (King,  2002).  Developed  nations  fear  that  ‘“centres”  might  be  contaminated  by  “peripheries”’  (ibid:  772)  as  territoriality  is  eroded,  and  that  therefore  disease  risks  must  be  managed  globally  through  ‘de-­‐territorialized  networks  in  which  information  is  collected,  managed,  assembled  and    4  disseminated’  (ibid:  768). 1  Through  the  mass  media,  the  public  also  has  never  been  more  aware  of  the  threat  posed  by  emerging  and  re-­‐emerging  infectious  diseases  (IED)  (Joffe,  2013:  447).  EIDs  can  travel  quickly  because  of  international  travel  and  densely  populated  cities,  giving  rise  to  Risk  Society  fears  (Washer,  2011:  506).  Wilkins  (2011  in  ibid)  demonstrates  how  rural  Malaysian  communities  believed  the  H1N1  pandemic  resulted  from  urban  lifestyles.  Further,  pandemics  are  often  portrayed  in  the  media  as  an  inevitable  part  of  modern  life  (Ungar,  2008:  482).  Anxiety  regarding  EID  risks  and  globalisation  is  closely  linked  with  blame  or  responsibility  and  ‘othering’.  Blame  allows  ‘for  the  social  understanding  and  ordering  of  disease  in  a  way  which  presumes  the  integrity  of  one’s  own  self-­‐management…by  holding  another  group  responsible’  (Abeysinghe  et.  al.,  2011:  312).  Australian  coverage  of  H5N1  in  2007  focused  on  the  individual  responsibility  of  nations  playing  their  part.  By  framing  stories  according  to  ‘the  contemporary  individualisation  of  risk’  (ibid:  311-­‐312),  the  press  portrayed  equally  under-­‐prepared  nations  in  two  different  lights:  developing  nations  ‘constantly  undermined’  global  efforts,  while  developed  nations  ‘struggled  valiantly’  to  catch  up.  Blame  was  justified  through  the  narrative  of  globalised  interdependence,  because  it  ‘render[ed]  the  actions  of  other  nations  as  a  valid  subject  of  our  own  concern’  (Abeysinghe  et.  al.,  2011:  315).  Expecting  the  next  pandemic  to  emerge  from  somewhere  distant,  developed  nations  demand  a  global  response  to  protect  its  citizens  at  home  (Abraham,  2011:  798).  But  the  media  is  ethically  obligated  to  provide  information  to  the  public  about  the  risks  of  disease,  and  to  evaluate  the  performance  of  health  institutions  in  mitigating  its  effects  (Wilkins,  2005).  Therefore,  though  blame  is  applied  across  borders,  we  might  also  expect  it  to  apply  to  governments  at  home.  Method  SARS  was  a  problem  with  national  and  international,  rather  than  local,  significance.  I  therefore  analysed  articles  from  The  Australian,  the  most  highly  circulated  of  only  two  national  Australian  newspapers.  Using  the  Factiva  database  I  searched  for  all  articles  published  in  The  Australian  during  2003  containing  the  term  ‘SARS’.  I  then  graphed  the  results  to  the  isolate  peak  period,  which  was  20  March  to  8  May  2009.  After  removing  articles  where  SARS  was  not  the  main  focus,  this  left  approximately  103  articles.  I  read  each  of  these  and  sought  out  common  themes,  which  are  explored  below.  Analysis  Early  SARS  coverage  applied  a  detective  frame,  which  quickly  gave  way  to  panic.   SARS  is  depicted  as  a  ‘mystery  microbe’  and  suspected  victims  are  ‘under  investigation’  [x].  These  early  articles  were  written  by  The  Australian’s  science  writer,  and  are  not  dramatised.  Rather  than  associating  SARS  with  pandemics  and  plagues,  the  writer  equated  it  with  familiar,  easily  cured                                                          1  A  clear  response  to  this  was  the  creation  of  WHO’s  lobal  Outbreak  and  Response  Network  (GOARN).  Also,  in  2006,  governments  around  the  world  acknowledged  that  ‘a  pandemic  could  potentially  kill  millions  and  cause  catastrophic  consequences’  (Beijing  Declaration,  2006;  see  also  Abraham,  2011).    5  viruses  such  as  measles  and  the  common  cold’  [xi].  But  five  days  later,  ‘global  health  authorities  [were]  struggling  to  contain’  its  spread  [xx].  Even  doctors  were  susceptible  to  the  virus  (ibid),  and  health  experts  warned  there  was  ‘no  cure,  no  test  to  diagnose  the  illness,  and  researchers  are  not…certain  of  what  causes  the  virus’  [xxi].  This  ‘mystery  killer’  theme  was  consistently  used  to  emphasis  the  novelty  of  SARS,  highlighting  the  deficiencies  of  science  and  therefore  promoting  the  drama  frame.   Drama  was  maximised  by  the  rising  numbers  of  infected  people,  but  also  through  the  historical  tension  between  faith  in  science  and  the  power  of  nature.  SARS  was  an  occupying  force  in  Beijing  and  rural  China.  Beijing  became  ‘a  ghost  city  of  empty  freeways,  shuttered  shops  and  citizens  cowering  indoors,’  [ii]  and  villagers  faced  an  ‘onslaught’  [xxiii]  from  an  ‘invisible  foe’  [iii].  Meanwhile,  Australia  was  ‘spared’  [xxiv]  and  ‘escape[d]’  [xii]  the  virus.  SARS  was  thus  portrayed  through  the  force  of  nature  frame,  somewhere  between  radiation  and  war;  as  if  it  were  a  spectre  that  Australia  could  only  monitor  and,  at  best,  outlast.  Despite  the  ominous  message  that  ‘there  will  be  more’  epidemics  [ix],  Australians  were  also  told  that  SARS  was  causing  ‘mass  hysteria’  [xix]  and  was  not  a  significant  risk  thanks  to  the  Communicable  Diseases  Network  Australia  [xxiv].  Science  and  disease  monitoring  would  protect  Australians,  and  this  tension  with  the  force  of  nature  demonstrates  Ungar’s  (2008)  mixed  messages,  as  authorities  attempted  to  explain  the  risks  while  keeping  the  public  calm.   Frames  of  heroes,  victims  and  villains  were  frequently  applied.  Detectives  and  drama  provided  the  basis  for  framing  heroes.  These  were  the  Hong  Kong  scientists  whose  ‘remarkable  and  unprecedented’  work  established  the  link  between  SARS  and  the  coronavirus  [xiv].  But  with  the  exception  of  Vietnam,  who  contained  the  virus  during  this  period,  nations  were  not  depicted  as  heroes.  It  is  unsurprising  that  scientists  were  the  heroes,  given  that  they  were  almost  always  the  main  interviewees.  Occasionally  Chinese  doctors  or  villagers  were  interviewed  to  demonstrate  how  the  government  was  failing  them.  The  biggest  victims  were  economies  [v],  with  a  large  volume  of  articles  focusing  on  particular  industries  and  business  owners;  for  example:  real  estate  [xv],  airlines  and  airports  [vi,  vii,  viii]  or  financial  markets  [xvi].  Consistent  with  the  findings  of  Houston  et.  al.  (2008:  217),  stories  of  individual  victims  were  less  frequent,  and  the  severity  of  the  disease  was  obscured  by  figures.   Discourses  of  blame  and  global  interdependence  were  especially  prevalent  in  SARS  coverage.  The  Chinese  government  was  undoubtedly  the  villain,  having  ‘covered-­‐up’  the  extent  of  contagion  in  China,  revealing  themselves  ‘as  globalisation’s  “weak  link”  where  disease-­‐control  is  concerned,’  [xxii]  and  ‘[giving]  a  disease  to  the  world’  [i].  China,  it  was  assumed,  could  never  contain  the  virus  on  its  own,  and  a  message  reinforced  by  stories  of  villagers  disinfecting  buses  and  schools  in  a  futile,  unscientific  effort  to  arrest  the  spread.  Statements  such  as  ‘[e]ffectively  WHO  has  no  jurisdiction  over  individual  countries’  implied  that  the  actions  of  foreign  governments,  and  the  especially  of  the  Chinese  government,  were  our  concern.  Rather  than  simply  being  unprepared,    6  Beijing  was  frequently  depicted  as  being  guilty  of  thwarting  international  efforts,  putting  its  image  above  international  security  and  finally  ‘admitting  to’  further  deaths  and  infections  [xxiii].   In  contrast  to  China,  Australia  dutifully  reported  its  one  case  of  SARS  to  WHO  (ibid),  and  ‘[did]  its  bit  by  playing  host  to  SARS  experts  from  40  countries  next  week  in  Melbourne’  [xxiii].  Interestingly,  while  Australia’s  responsibility  was  to  monitor  and  report,  China  was  expected  to  exploit  its  authoritarian  governmental  system  and  quickly  enforce  quarantining  [xxii];  centralised  authority  became  a  positive  thing  during  this  crisis.  The  Australian  government  was  not  interviewed  aside  from  its  state  leaders,  giving  the  impression  that  it  was  not  Australia’s  concern,  and  neither  the  adequacy  of  its  preventative  measure  nor  the  efficacy  of  quarantining  in  general  were  questioned.  There  was  a  general  contradiction  in  that  the  world  faced  a  global  threat,  but  that  individual  nations  must  fend  for  themselves  –  though,  as  noted,  heroic  scientists  were  collaborating  internationally.  And,  though  it  can  be  argued  that  criticism  of  Chinese  controls  was  ethical  (Wilkins,  2005),  this  test  was  not  applied  to  other  governments.  Future  risk  became  a  prominent  topic  in  this  coverage.  ‘Super-­‐carriers’  were  discussed,  but  generally  not  in  terms  of  individual  blame  or  stigma.  Rather,  super-­‐carriers  were  likely  to  start  the  next  phase  of  contagion  [xxvii].  This  ‘next  phase’  idea  was  revisited  when  scientists  revealed  that  SARS  could  survive  for  28  days  outside  the  body  [xviii].  By  12  April,  reporters  were  already  discussing  the  how  the  lessons  learned  from  this  crisis  could  be  applied  to  ‘the  big  one’  [iv],  illustrating  both  the  existence  of  the  emerging  diseases  worldview  and  the  need  to  create  news  through  drama.  Conclusion  The  Australian  created  drama  and  mixed  messages  by  applying  the  opposing  frames  of  faith  in  science  and  SARS  as  a  force  of  nature.  This  is  similar  to  coverage  of  earlier  pandemics,  and  shows  how  depictions  of  pandemic  threats  have  not  evolved  a  great  deal.  However,  this  dramatic  framing  was  exacerbated  by  the  emerging  diseases  and  risk  worldviews.  The  public  is  now  anticipating  ‘the  big  one’,  which  provides  an  easy  narrative  for  describing  future  risks.  Blame  stemming  from  individual  responsibility  was  regularly  applied  to  China.  The  Australian  was  heavily  critical  of  the  actions  of  the  Chinese  government,  but  appeared  to  unquestioningly  assume  that  Australia’s  preparations  and  were  adequate.  This  is  contra  to  the  idea  that  the  virus  is  a  spectre  that  needs  to  be  outlasted.  Further,  Australia  was  doing  its  duty  by  monitoring  the  disease,  though  it  was  not  depicted  as  offering  any  assistance  to  China.  Its  apparent  uninvolvement,  whilst  expecting  Chinese  cooperation,  seems  incongruous  with  a  global  threat.  Depictions  of  China  as  a  villain  implied  that  the  nation  was  scientifically  backward,  which  may  resonate  with  Australian’s  perceptions  of  China  as  underdeveloped  and  somehow  deserving  of  SARS.  Viewing  the  country  as  an  authoritarian  villain  is  made  easier  by  its  central  government,  the  few  interviews  with  sufferers  and  the  imagery  of  deserted  streets,  whereby  Beijing  –  rather    7  than  people  –  is  the  victim.  Generally,  however,  the  victim  was  the  economy.  The  economy  affects  Australia  more  than  the  suffering  of  Chinese  citizens,  and  may  demonstrate  the  self-­‐interested  nature  of  Australians  and  their  psychological  distance  from  foreign  ‘others’.  That  heroes  were  individuals  only  reinforces  the  idea  that  the  Chinese  state  has  failed,  and  that  only  the  power  of  science  and  scientists  can  protect  us  from  pandemics.    8  Bibliography  Abeysinghe,  S.  &  White,  K.  (2011)  ‘The  avian  infuenza  pandemic:  Discourses  of  risk,  contagion  and  preparation  in  Australia’  Health,  Risk  &  Society  June,  Vol.  13, 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 D.  (2008)  ‘Media  Coverage  of  Public  Health  Epidemics:  Linking  Framing  and  Issue  Attention  Cycle  Toward  an  Integrated  Theory  of  Print  News  Coverage  of  Epidemics’  Mass  Communication  &  Society  Vol.  11:  pp  141-­‐160  Snow,  D.  &  Benford,  R.  (2000)  ‘Framing  Processes  and  Social  Movements:  an  Overview  and  Assessment’  Annual  Review  of  Sociology  Iss.  26:  611-­‐639  Ungar,  S.  (2008)  ‘Global  bird  flu  communication:  hot  crisis  and  media  reassurance’  Science  Communication  29:  472  Washer,  P.  (2011)  ‘Lay  perceptions  of  emerging  infectious  diseases:  a  commentary’  Public  Understanding  of  Science  20(4):  506  Wagner-­‐Egger,  P.,  Bangerter,  A.,  Gilles,  I.,  Green,  E.,  Rigaud,  D.,  Krings,  F.,  Staerkle,  C.  &  Clemence,  A.  (2011)  ‘Lay  perceptions  of  collectives  at  the  outbreak  of  the  H1N1  epidemic:  heroes,  villains  and  victims’  Public  Understanding  of  Science  20(4):  461-­‐47  WHO  (2003)  ‘Summary  of  probable  SARS  cases  with  onset  of  illness  from  1  November  2002  to  31  July  2003’  WHO:  Global  Alert  and  Response  (31  December)  http://www.who.int/csr/sars/country/table2004_04_21/en/index.html  [accessed  18  April  2013]  WHO  (2009)  ‘Pandemic  (H1N1)  2009  -­‐  update  76’  WHO:  Global  Alert  and  Response  (27  November)  http://www.who.int/csr/don/2009_11_27a/en/index.html  [accessed  18  April  2013]  Index  of  Articles  in  The  Australian   i.  Armitage,  C.  (2003c)  ‘The  doctor  who  gave  a  disease  to  the  world’  The  Australian,  5  April  ii.  Armitage,  C.  (2003a)  ‘SARS  the  shadow  of  death  in  ghost  city’  The  Australian,  28  April  iii.  Armitage,  C.  (2003b)  ‘Villagers  mount  blockades  for  an  invisible  foe’  The  Australian,  3  May  iv.  Armitage,  C.  &  Korporaal,  G.  (2003)  ‘DEADLY  SERIOUS’  The  Australian,  12  April  v.  Creedy,  S.,  Korporaal,  G.  &  Armitage,  C.  (2003)  ‘Epidemic  threatens  regional  economy’  The  Australian,  9  April  vi.  Creedy,  S.  (2003a)  ‘Airline's  job  losses  inevitable  with  so  many  clouds  on  horizon’  The  Australian,  10  April  vii.  Creedy,  S.  (2003b)  ‘Airports  brace  for  a  paucity  of  passengers’  The  Australian,  23  April  viii.  Creedy,  S.  &  Harvey,  C.  (2003)  ‘Wary  Qantas  pulls  in  its  wings’  The  Australian,  24  April  ix.  Curson,  P.  (2003)  ‘Our  lifestyles  help  germs  to  thrive’  The  Australian,  3  April  x.  Dayton,  L.  (2003a)  ‘HK  hotel  cited  as  source  of  flu  bug’  The  Australian,  21  March  xi.  Dayton,  L.  (2003b)  ‘SARS  may  be  common  cold  mutant,  say  US  scientists’  The  Australian,  26  March    10  xii.  Dayton,  L.  (2003c)  ‘Australia  to  escape  SARS  epidemic’  The  Australian,  4  April    代写framing  the  SARS  crisis

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